The problematic status of statistics on race and ethnicity: An "imperfect representation of reality"

Juri Stratford, "Responding to Reference Queries for Numeric Data and the Problems Inherent in Interpreting Statistical Sources: A Note," Journal of Government Information 25, no. 5 (1998):413–417.

Thomas Duszak, "Polish American Women: Tracing Ethnic Achievement in Published U.S. Government Sources," Journal of Government Information 25, no. 1 (1998):47–71.

U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Post Office and Civil Service, Effect of Census Statistics on Federal Programs and Reporting Requirements: Hearings before the Subcommittee on Census and Statistics, 93rd Cong., 2nd sess., 31 May, 1 June 1974.

American Anthropological Association, Response to OMB Directive 15 [September 1997] available from, http://www.ameranthassn.org/comsumm.htm.

Stephen H. Riggins, ed., The Language and Politics of Exclusion: Others in Discourse (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc., 1997).

Clara Rodriguez and Hector Cordero-Guzman, "Placing Race in Context," Ethnic and Racial Studies 15, no. 4 (1992):523–542.

Joseph W. Duncan and William C. Shelton, Revolution in United States Government Statistics, 1926–1976 (Washington, DC: Office of Federal Statistical Policy and Standards, 1978).

American Anthropological Association, Press Release/OMB 15 (Washington, DC: American Anthropological Association, 1997).

Reynolds Farley, "Questions about Race, Spanish Origin and Ancestry: Findings from the Census of 1990 and Proposals for the Census of 2000," in 1991 Proceedings of the Social Statistics Section (Arlington, VA: American Statistical Association, 1991), 356–361.

Margo Anderson, The American Census: A Social History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988).

David E. Hayes-Bautista and Jorge Chapa, "Latino Terminology: Conceptual Bases for Standardized Terminology," American Journal of Public Health 7, no. 1 (1987):61–68.

U.S. Office of Management and Budget, Public Hearings in the Matter of Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity, Boston, 7 July 1994; Denver, 11 July 1994; San Francisco, 14 July 1994; Honolulu, 18–19 July 1984 (mimeo).

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 200 Years of U.S. Census Taking: Population and Housing Questions, 1790–1990 (Washington, DC, 1989).

Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York: Routledge, 1995).

"Slave Descendant Fights Race Listing," New York Times, 15 September 1982.

F. F. Marcus, "Louisiana Repeals Black Blood Law," New York Times, 6 July 1983.

Doe v. State, 479 So. 2d La. 369 (1985).

Doe v. State, 485 So. 2d La. 60 (La. Ct. App. 1986).

U.S. Federal Interagency Committee on Education, Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on Racial and Ethnic Definitions (Washington, DC, 1974).

U.S. Office of Management and Budget, "Standards for the Classification of Race and Ethnicity," Federal Register 59 (1 June 1994): 29831-35.

U.S. Office of Management and Budget, "Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity," Federal Register 60 (28 August 1995): 44673-93.

U.S. Office of Management and Budget, "Recommendations from the Interagency Committee for the Review of the Racial and Ethnic Standards to the Office Management and Budget Concerning Changes to the Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity," Federal Register 62 (9 July 1997): 36874-946.

U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Post Office and Civil Service, Review of Federal Measurement of Race and Ethnicity: Hearings before the Subcommittee on Census, Statistics and Postal Personnel, 103rd Cong., 1st sess., 14 April, 30 June, 29 July, 3 November 1993.

U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Government Reform and Oversight, Federal Measures of Race and Ethnicity and the Implications for the 2000 Census: Hearings before the Subcommittee on Government Management, Information, and Technology, 105th Cong., 1st sess., 23 April, 22 May, 25 July 1997.

Barry Edmonston and Jeffrey N. Passel, eds., Immigration and Ethnicity: The Integration of America’s Newest Arrivals (Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, 1994), 6.

Yen L. Espiritu, Asian American Panethnicity: Bridging Institutions and Identities (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1992).

Gareth Davies, From Opportunity to Entitlement: The Transformation and Decline of Great Society Liberalism (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1996).

U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Post Office and Civil Service, Accuracy of 1970 Census Enumeration and Related Matters: Hearings before the Subcommittee on Census and Population, 91st Cong., 2nd sess., 15, 16, 22–24, 29, 30 September 1970.

U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Post Office and Civil Service, Economic and Social Statistics for Americans of Spanish Origin: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Census and Population, 94th Cong., 1st sess., 21 March 1975.

U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Post Office and Civil Service, Equal Opportunity Hearing in Denver, Colorado: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Postal Facilities, Mail, and Labor Management, 94th Cong., 1st sess., 21 May 1969.

U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Labor and Human Resources, Migrant and Seasonal Farmworker Powerlessness, Who is Responsible: Hearings before the Subcommittee on Migratory Labor, 91st Cong., 2nd sess., 1, 20, 21, 24 July 1970.

U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary, Federal Government's Role in the Achievement of Equal Opportunity in Housing: Hearings before Subcommittee No. 4, 92nd Cong., 1st sess., 27 October, 2, 3, 10, 11 November, 2, 8, 9 December 1971; and 2nd sess., 15 June 1972.

U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Post Office and Civil Service, 1980 Census: Hearings before the Subcommittee on Census and Population, 94th Cong., 2nd sess., 1-2 June 1980.

U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Select Committee on Immigration, Immigration in the U.S., 95th Cong., 2nd sess., 4–7 April 1978.

Ruth B. McKay and Manuel de la Puente, "Cognitive Research in Designing the CPS Supplement on Race and Ethnicity" (paper presented at the U.S. Bureau of the Census 1995 Annual Research Conference, March 19–22, 1995, Rosslyn, VA).

Kathryn F. Thomas and Tamara L. Dingbaum, "How Good are These Data Anyway? The 1990 Content Reinterview Survey," in 1992 Proceedings of the Section on Survey Research Methods (Alexandria, VA: American Statistical Association, 1992), 369–374.

U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Testing Methods of Collecting Racial and Ethnic Information: Results of the Current Population Survey Supplement on Race and Ethnicity (BLS Statistical Notes 40) (Washington, DC, 1996).

Timothy P. Johnson, Jared B. Jobe, Diane O’Rourke, Seymour Sudman, Richard Warnecke, Noel Chavez, Gloria Chapa-Resendez, and Patricia Golden, "Dimensions of Self Identification Among Multiracial and Multiethnic Respondents in Survey Interviews" (paper presented at the 1996 Annual Research Conference and Technology Interchange meeting, Arlington, VA, March 1996).

Clara E. Rodriguez, Puerto Ricans: Born in the U.S.A. (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991).

Hilary L. Surratt and James A. Inciardi, "Unraveling the Concept of Race in Brazil: Issues for the Rio de Janeiro Cooperative Agreement Site," Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 30, no. 3 (1998):255–260.

Clara E. Rodriguez, "Race, Culture, and Latino 'Otherness' in the 1980 Census," Social Science Quarterly 71, no. 4 (1991):930–937.

Jorge Calerón, "'Hispanic' and 'Latino': The Viability of Categories for Panethnic Unity," Latin American Perspectives 19, no. 4 (1992):37–44.

David Hayes-Bautista and Jorge Chapa, "Latino Terminology: Conceptual Bases for Standardized Terminology," American Journal of Public Health 77, no. 7 (1987):61–68.

Suzanne Obolér, "The Politics of Labeling: Latino/a Cultural Identities of Self and Others," Latin American Perspectives 19, no. 4 (1992):18–36.

Clara E. Rodriguez, "Racial Classification Among Puerto Rican Men and Women in New York," Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 12, no. 4 (1990):366–379; Rodriguez, 1991.

Clara Rodriguez and Hector Cordero-Guzman, "Placing Race in Context," Ethnic and Racial Studies, 15, no. 4 (1990):523–542.

Clara E. Rodriguez, Aida Castro, Oscar Garcia, and Analisa Torres, "Latino Racial Identity: In the Eye of the Beholder?," Latino Studies Journal (1991):33–48.

Fernando M. Trevio, "Standardized Terminology for Hispanic Populations," American Journal of Public Health 77, no. 1 (1987):69–72.

Joan Nagel, "Constructing Ethnicity: Creating and Recreating Ethnic Identity and Culture," Social Problems 41 (1994):152–176.

Charles E. Johnson, Consistency of Reporting Ethnic Origin in the Current Population Survey (Bureau of the Census Technical Paper 31) (Washington, DC, 1974), 6–7.

Richard D. Alba and Mark B. Chamlin, "A Preliminary Examination of Ethnic Identification among Whites," American Sociological Review 48, no. 2 (1983): 240–247.

Mary Waters, Ethnic Options: Choosing Identities in America (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990).

Nampeo R. McKenney, Reynolds Farley, and Michael J. Levin, "Direct and Indirect Measures of Ethnicity: How Different Definitions Affect the Size and Characteristics of Various Ethnic Groups," in 1983 Proceedings of the Social Statistics Section (Washington, DC: American Statistical Association, 1983), 123–130.

Manuel de la Puente, "A Multivariate Analysis of the Census Omission of Hispanics and Non-Hispanic Whites, Blacks, Asians, and American Indians: Evidence from Small Area Ethnographic Studies," in 1993 Proceedings of the Section on Survey Research Methods (Alexandria, VA: American Statistical Association, 1993), 641–646.

Edwardo W. Fernandez and Nampeo R. McKenney, "Identification of the Hispanic Population: A Review of Census Bureau Experiences," in 1980 Proceedings of the Section on Survey Research Methods (Washington, DC: American Statistical Association, 1980), 358–363.

F. James Davis, ed., Who is Black?: One Nation's Definition (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1991).

Naomi Zack, ed., American Mixed Race: The Culture of Microdiversity (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1995).

Michael J. Levin, Nampeo R. McKenney, and Paul A. Berman, "Uses and Interpretations of Racial and Ethnic Data from the U.S. Census," in 1984 Proceedings of the Social Statistics Section (Washington, DC: American Statistical Association, 1984), 88–95.

Mathew Snip, "Who are American Indians? Some Observations about the Perils and Pitfalls of Data for Race and Ethnicity," Population Research and Policy Review 5 (1986):237–252.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Results of the 1996 Race and Ethnic Targeted Test (Population Division Working Paper Series) (Washington, DC, 1997).

Elizabeth Martin, Teresa J. DeMaio, and Pamela C. Campanelli, "Context Effects for Census Measures of Race and Hispanic Origin," Public Opinion Quarterly 54, no. 4 (1990):551–566.

Robert A. Hahn, "The State of Federal Health Statistics on Racial and Ethnic Groups," Journal of the American Medical Association 267, no. 2 (1992):268–271.

Robert A. Hahn and Steven Eberhart, "Life Expectancy in Four U.S. Racial/Ethnic Populations: 1990," Epidemiology 6, no. 4 (1995):350–355.

Robert A. Hahn, Benedict I. Truman, and Nancy D. Barker, "Identifying Ancestry: The Reliability of Ancestral Identification in the United States by Self, Proxy, Interviewer, and Funeral Director," Epidemiology 7, no. 1 (1995):75–80.

Robert A. Hahn, Joseph Muolinare, and Steven M. Teutsch, "Inconsistencies in Coding of Race and Ethnicity Between Birth and Death in US Infants," Journal of the American Medical Association 267, no. 2 (1992):259–263.

Federal Data Collection: Agencies' Use of Consistent Race and Ethnic Definitions, Report to the Chairman, Committee on Government Operations, House of Representatives (GAO/GDD-93-25) (Washington, DC, 1992).

Federal Data Collection: Measuring Race and Ethnicity is Complex and Controversial, Testimony before the Subcommittee on Census, Statistics, and Postal Personnel, Committee on Post Office and Civil Service, House of Representatives (GAO/T-GGD-93-21) (Washington, DC, 1993).

Statistical Agencies: Collection and Reporting of Race and Ethnicity Data, Testimony before the Subcommittee on Governmental Reform and Oversight, House of Representatives (GAO/T-GGD-97-92) (Washington, DC, 1997).

Larry Sink, Race and Ethnicity Classification Consistency between the Census Bureau and the National Center for Health Statistics (Technical Working Paper No. 17) (Washington, DC, February 1997) [4 November 1998]. Available from: <http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0017.html/abstract>.

Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States From the 1960s to the 1990s, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 1994), vii.

Leobardo F. Estrada, "The Politics of the Census: A Reflection of the Dilemmas in U.S. Society," in Challenges of Measuring an Ethnic World: Science, Politics and Reality (proceedings of the Joint Canada-United States Conference on the Measurement of Ethnicity, April 1–3, 1992) (Washington, DC, Commerce Department and Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 1993), 497–512.

Barry Edmonston and Charles Schultze, Modernizing the U.S. Census (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1994).

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Preparing for the Census 2000, Subjects Planned for Census 2000: Federal Legislative and Program Uses (Washington, DC: Bureau of the Census, May 1997).