Use of Social Media in the Generation and Diffusion of Information during the 2015 General Elections in Nigeria

Irenoa, Kenneth Ohis Use of Social Media in the Generation and Diffusion of Information during the 2015 General Elections in Nigeria., 2017 Masters Degree thesis, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. [Thesis]

[img]
Preview
Text
USE OF SOCIAL MEDIA IN THE GENERATION AND DIFFUSION OF INFORMATION DURING THE 2015 GENERAL ELECTIONS IN NIGERIA.pdf

Download (1MB) | Preview

English abstract

Information plays a vital role in every society. It has the potentials to create conflicts situations and peace, if properly and contextually understood and well managed. The ways and channels through which information flows have profound implications if not properly understood. The study sought to understand the role that social media played in the generation and diffusion of information during the 2015 general elections in Nigeria; to achieve this four research questions were raised: What types of information were generated and diffused on social media about the presidential candidates during the 2015 general elections in Nigeria? What types of information were shared on social media about the presidential candidates during the 2015 general elections in Nigeria? How did social media friends make sense of information shared with them about the presidential candidates during the 2015 Nigeria general elections? How do the two constructs of dual process theory (Informational and Normative factors) explain information generation and diffusion on social media during elections? The study which is a qualitative research was premised within the interpretive paradigm, with Deutsch and Gerrard’s Dual Process Theory used as a theoretical framework for the study. The case study approach was used to investigate the phenomena. Nine (9) respondents were purposively sampled for the research and a content analysis of their social media pages was conducted. Inductive approach was employed in analyzing the data realized from the content analyzed pages from the respondents, which yielded two hundred and sixty-two (262) open codes, from which eighteen (18) sub-categories, seven (7) categories, and three (3) major themes were derived. The findings of the study showed that there was a higher use of social media during the 2015 general elections as compared to previous elections and was used to post offensive information about the candidates. Also, the study revealed that most people shared or were most likely to share what they believed to be true which had propaganda and high misinformation. People and friends on social media made sense of information received at face value and in most cases were not as interested in the message posted but where the person making the post was from. The social media was extensively used to propagate hate and divisive sentiments during the 2015 electioneering period in Nigeria. The study concluded that as social media continues to gain immense traction in terms of use in society, steps need to be taken to reduce the unending possibilities for misinformation, propaganda, and rumours which if misconstrued could lead to conflict situations.

Item type: Thesis (UNSPECIFIED)
Keywords: Social Media; Information Generation; Information Diffusion; Elections; Nigeria; 2015
Subjects: B. Information use and sociology of information > BC. Information in society.
B. Information use and sociology of information > BG. Information dissemination and diffusion.
H. Information sources, supports, channels. > HT. Web 2.0, Social networks
Depositing user: Mr. Kenneth O. IRENOA
Date deposited: 26 Jul 2018 07:45
Last modified: 26 Jul 2018 07:45
URI: http://hdl.handle.net/10760/32701

References

Abati, R. (2016, August 26). The man who named his dog, Buhari. Retrieved from The Guardian: http://guardian.ng/opinion/the-man-who-named-his-dog-buhari/

Acker Bill, L.S (2007). A case study of the influence of family in first-generation college students’ educational aspirations post high school. Marry land: University of Maryland.

Adams, Anne; Lunt, Peter and Cairns, Paul (2008). A qualititative approach to HCI research. In: Cairns, Paul and Cox, Anna eds. Research Methods for Human-Computer Interaction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 138–157.

Adebayo, H. (2015, March 28). Card Reader: We're vindicated - PDP. Retrieved from Premium Times: http://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/179728-card-reader-were-vindicated-pdp.html

Aina, L.O (2004). Library and Information Science Text for Africa. Ibadan: Third World Information Service.

Ajayi, A. T., & Ojo, E. O. (2014). Democracy in Nigeria: Practice, Problems and Prospects. Developing Country Studies, 4(2), 107–125. Retrieved from http://iiste.org/Journals/index.php/DCS/article/view/10369%5Cnhttp://iiste.org/Journals/index.php/DCS/article/download/10369/11010

Albert, I. O. (2001). Building Peace, Advancing Democracy: Experience with Third Party Interventions in Nigeria's Conflict. Ibadan: John Archers Publishers Ltd.

Alimba, Chinyere N. (2014). Probing the dynamic of communal conflict in Northern Nigeria. African Research Review: An International Multidisciplinary Journal, Ethiopia Vol. 8 (1), Serial No. 32, January: 177-204 ISSN 1994-9057. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/afrrev.v8i1.13

Allern, S. and Pollack, E. (2012). Scandalous: the mediated construction of political scandals in four Nordic countries. Göteborg: Nordicom.

Alvesson, M. (2003). Beyond neopositivists, romantics, and localists: a reflexive approach to interviews in organizational research. Academy of Management Review, 28, 13-34.

Amineh, R. J., & Asl, H. D. (2015). Review of Constructivism and Social Constructivism. Journal of Social Sciences, Literature and Languages, 1(1), 9–16.

Andrews, T. (2012). What is Social Constructionism? The Grounded Theory Review, Volume 11, Issue 1.

Annan, N. (2014). Violent conflicts and civil strife in West Africa: Causes, challenges and prospects for stability: International Journal of Security & Development, 3(1): 3, pp. 1-16, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5334/sta.da

Antwi, S. K., & Hamza, K. (2015). Qualitative and Quantitative Research Paradigms in Business Research: A Philosophical Reflection. European Journal of Business and Management, 7(3), 217–226.

Austin, T., & de Jong, W. (2008). Rethinking documentary: New perspectives, new practices. London: Open University Press.

Austin, T., & de Jong, W. (2008). Rethinking documentary: New perspectives, new practices. London: Open University Press.

Babbie, E. R. (2007). The practice of social research (11th ed.). Belmont, CA.: Thomson Wadsworth.

Baffour, K. (2015). Thirty Achievements of Goodluck Jonathan Administration. Retrieved from Naij.com: https://www.naij.com/291232-goodluck-jonathan-administration.html

Bailey, K. (1994). Methods of social research, fourth edition. New York: The free press.

Bakshy, E., Rosenn, I., Marlow, C., & Adamic, L. (2012). The Role of Social Networks in Information Diffusion. Retrieved from http://arxiv.org/abs/1201.4145

Bartle, C., Avineri, E. and Chatterjee, K. (2013) Online information-sharing: a qualitative analysis of community, trust and social influence amongst commuter cyclists in the UK. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 16. pp. 60-72. ISSN 1369-8478 Available from: http://eprints.uwe.ac.uk/17096

Baxter, P., & Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative Case Study Methodology: Study Design and Implementation for Novice Researchers Qualitative Case Study Methodology: Study Design and Implementation, 13(4), 544–559.

Bell, J. (2010). Doing Your Research Project. 5th ed. Berkshire: Open University Press.

Berger, P. & Luckmann, T. (1991). The social construction of reality. London: Penguin Books.

Berger, P. L., & Luckmann, T. (1966). The social construction of reality: A treatise in the sociology of knowledge. New York, NY: Anchor.

Bernard, H. R. (2002). Research methods in anthropology: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (3rd ed.). Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira Press.

Bhavnani, R., Findley, M. G., & Kuklinski, J. H. (2009). Rumor Dynamics in Ethnic Violence. The Journal of Politics, 71(3), 876. http://doi.org/10.1017/S002238160909077X

Birch, S. (2005). Single-member district electoral systems and democratic transition. Electoral Studies, 24(2), 281–301. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2004.06.002

Blanchard, L. P. (2014). The Crisis in South Sudan. Congressional Research Service, 1-21.

Boland, J. R., & Lyytinen, K. (2004). Information Systems Research as Design: Identity, Process and Narrative. Proceedings of the IFIP Working Group 8.2 Conference Manchester, UK 15-17 July 2004 20th Year Retrospective: Relevant Theory and Informed Practice? Looking Forward from a 20-Year Perspective on IS Research

Boomgaarden, H. G., Johann, D., & Kritzinger, S. (2016). Voting at National versus European Elections: An Individual Level Test of the Second Order Paradigm for the 2014 European Parliament Elections. Politics and Governance, 4(1), 130–144. http://doi.org/10.17645/pag.v4i1.472

Bowen, G. A. (2008). Naturalistic inquiry and the saturation concept: A research note. Qualitative Research, 8(1), 137-152.

Bowen, G. A. (2009). Document analysis as a qualitative research method. Qualitative Research Journal, 9(2), 27-40.

Bowen, G. A. (2009). Document analysis as a qualitative research method. Qualitative Research Journal, 9(2), 27-40.

Boyd, d. and Ellison, N. (2008). Social network sites: Definition, history, and scholarship. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13, 210-230.

Briggs, P., Burford, B., De Angeli, A., and Lynch, P. (2002). Trust in Online Advice. Social Science Computer Review, 20(3), 321-332.

Bruce-Lockhart, K. (2014, February 14). From incitement to self-censorship: the media in the Kenyan elections of 2007 and 2013. Retrieved from Free Speech Debate: http://freespeechdebate.com/en/discuss/124451/

Bryson, J. M. (2004). “What to do when stakeholders matter: Stakeholder identification analysis techniques”, Public Management Review, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 21-53

Budak, C., Agrawal, D., and El Abbadi, A. (2011). Limiting the spread of misinformation in social networks. In Proc. Of WWW, ACM, 665-674.

Burch, R.J. (2007). A study examining the impact of scaffolding young children’s acquisition of literacy in primary grades. Louisiana State University: The Department of Educational Theory, Policy, and Practice.

Burns, A. C. and Bush, R. F. (2003). Marketing research: Online research applications, 4th edition, Publisher: Prentice Hall

Cachia, R., Compano, R., and Da Costa, O. (2007). Grasping the potential of online social networks for foresight. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 74, 1179-1203.

Castillo, C., Mendoza, M., and Poblete, B. (2011). Information credibility on twitter. WWW, ACM, 675-684.

Channels Television. (2015, January 18). Buhari Dispels Rumours of Ill Health. Retrieved from Channels Television: http://www.channelstv.com/2015/01/18/buhari-dispels-rumours-ill-health/

Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through qualitative analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Cheng, Z., Caverlee, J., and Lee, K. You are where you tweet: A content-based approach to geo-locating twitter users. Proc. of Conference on Information and Knowledge Management, CIKM 2010, 759-768. ACM.

Cheung, M. Y., Luo, C., Sia, C. L., & Chen, H. (2009). Credibility of electronic word-of-mouth: informational and normative determinants of on-line consumer recommendations. International Journal of Electronic Commerce (IJEC), 13(4), 9-38.

Cheung, M. Y., Luo, C., Sia, C. L., and Chen, H. (2009). Credibility of Electronic Word-of-Mouth: Informational and Normative Determinants of On-line Consumer Recommendations. International Journal of Electronic Commerce, 13(4), 9-38.

Chierichetti, F., Lattanzi, S., and Panconesi, A. (2009). Rumor spreading in social networks. In 36th Intl. Colloquium on Automata, Languages and Programming (ICALP), pp. 375–386. Springer.

Choy, L. T. (2014). The Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methodology: Comparison and Complimentary between Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 19(4), 99–104. Retrieved from www.iosrjournals.org

Christ, P. (2007). “Internet technologies and trends transforming public relations”, Journal of Website Promotion, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 3-14.

Cline, B. (2015). Moral Explanations, Thick and Thin. Journal of Ethics and Social Philosophy, 9(2), 1-20.

Corden, R.E. (2001). Group discussion and the importance of a shared perspective: Learning from collaborative research. Qualitative Research, 1(3), 347-367.

Cresswell, J. W., & Plano-Clark, V. L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed method research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Creswell, J. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative & quantitative approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. SAGE Publications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Crossley, N. (2001). The Social Body: Habit, Identity and Desire. London: Sage Publications Ltd.

Crouch, M., & McKenzie, H. (2006). The logic of small samples in interview based qualitative research. Social Science Information, 45(4), 483-499.

Dalip, D. H., Goncalves, M. A., Cristo, M., & Calado, P. (2017). A general multiview framework for assessing the quality of collaboratively created content on web 2.0. Journal of Association of Information Science and Technology, 68, 286-308. doi:10.1002/asi.23650

Daniel C., (2008). Traditional methods of avoiding genocidal slaughter. Online encyclopedia of mass violence, [online], published on 30 March 2008, accessed 8 February 2015, URL: http://www.massviolence.org/Traditional-Methods-of-Avoiding-Genocidal-Slaughter, ISSN 1961-9898

Deutsch, M., and Gerrard, H. B. (1955). A Study of Normative and Informational Social Influence upon Individual Judgment. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51(3), 629-636.

Diamond, J. (2005). Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. New York: Penguin Group.

Diamond, L. (1997). Prospects for Democratic Development in Africa. In J. M. Makumbe, Is there a Civil Society in Africa? (Vol. 74, pp. 305-317). Harare.

Dix, S. (2012). “Introduction to the special issue on social media and mobile marketing”, Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, Vol. 6 No. 3.

Doucey, M. (2011). Understanding the root causes of conflicts: Why it matters for International crisis management. International Affairs Review, 20 (2) 1-12.

Dougiamas, M. (1998, November). A journey into Constructivism.

Dyson, A. H. (2004). Writing and the sea of voices: Oral language in, around, and about writing. In R.B. Ruddell, & N.J. Unrau (Eds.), Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading (pp. 146–162). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Ekine, Sokari (2010). Use and Abuse of Social Media in Nigerian Elections http://www.newint.org/blog/majority/2010/10/21/use-and-abuse-of-social-media-in-nigerian- elections/.

Ekpo, C. E., Chime, J., & Enor, F. N. (2016). The Irony of Nigeria’s fight against corruption: An appraisal of President Muhammadu Buhari's first eight month's in office. International Journal of History and Philosophical Research, 4(1), 61–73. Retrieved from www.eajournals.org

Elbanna, A. (2010). Rethinking IS project boundaries in practice: a multiple-projects perspective. The Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 19(1), 39–51.

Elekwa, N. N. (2008). The Electoral Process in Nigeria: How to make INEC succeed. The Nigerian Electoral Journal, 2(1), 30-42.

Ellis, D. (1993). Modeling the information-seeking patterns of academic researchers: A Grounded Theory approach. Library Quarterly, 63 (4), 469-486.

Elmi, A. A., and Barise, A. (2006). The Somali Conflict: Root causes, obstacles, and peace building strategies. African Security Review, 32-54.

Elombah.com (2015, October 11). The Fallacy of Chibok Girls and the 2015 General Election. Retrieved from Elombah.com: http://www.elombah.com/index.php/opinion/1521-the-fallacy-of-chibok-girls-and-the-2015-general-election

Fallis, D. (2006). Social epistemology and information science. Ann. Rev. Info. Sci. Tech., 40: 475–519. doi: 10.1002/aris.1440400119.

Flick, U. (2002). An introduction to qualitative research. London: Sage.

Furner, J. (2002). Shera's social epistemology recast as psychological bibliology. Social Epistemology, 16(1), 5-22.

Furner, J. (2004). "A brilliant mind": Margaret Egan and social epistemology. Library Trends, 52(4), 792-809.

Gantz, W., and Trenholm, S. Why people pass on news: Motivations for diffusion. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 56, 2 (1979), 365-370.

Gergen, K., Gergen, M. and Barrett, F. (2004), “Dialogue: life and death of the organization”, in Grant, D., Hardy, C., Oswick, C. and Putnam, L.L. (Eds), The Sage Handbook of Organizational Discourse, Sage Publications, London.

Gichuru, M. J. (2017). The interpretive research paradigm: A critical review of is research methodologies. International Journal of Innovative Research and Advanced Studies (IJIRAS), 4(2), 1–5. Retrieved from www.ijiras.com

Goldman, A. (2010). ‘Why Social Epistemology Is Real Epistemology’, Social Epistemology, (eds.) A. Haddock, A. Millar and D. H. Pritchard, 1-28, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Goleman, D. (2006). Social Intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.

González-Herrero, A., & Smith, S. (2008), “Crisis communications management on the web: how internet-based technologies are changing the way public relations professionals handle business crises”, Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 143-153.

González-Herrero, A., & Smith, S. (2010). “Crisis communications management 2.0: organizational principles to manage crisis in an online world”, Organization Development Journal, Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 97-105.

Green, J., & Thorogood, N. (2009). Qualitative methods for health research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Guest, G., Bunce, A., & Johnson, L. (2006). How many interviews are enough? An experiment with data saturation and variability". Field Methods, 18(1), 59-82.

Guille, A., & Hacid, H. (2012). A Predictive Model for the temporal dynamics of information diffusion on online social networks. WWW '12 Companion, 1145-1152.

Hagens V., Dobrow M., & Chafe R. (2009). Interviewee Transcript Review: assessing the impact on qualitative research. BMC Med Res Method; 9(1):47.

Harvard Business School (2010). The new conversation: Taking social media from talk to action. Harvard Business Review Report, Harvard Business Publishing, Boston, MA, available at: www.sas.com/resources/whitepaper/wp_23348.pdf (Accessed 2014-04-07)

Hill, K. (2012). Hurricane Sandy, @Comfortably Smug, and the flood of social media misinformation. Forbes.com. (October 30,). Available at: http://www.forbes.com/sites/kashmirhill/2012/10/30/hurricane-sandy-andthe-flood-of-social-media-misinformation/

Hiltz, S. R., Kushma, J., & Plotnick, L. (2014). Use of social media by US public sector emergency managers: Barriers and wish lists. Proc. of ISCRAM.

Hoffman, J. L., Wu, H.-K., Krajcik, J. S., & Soloway, E. (2003). The nature of middle school learner's science content understandings with the use of on-line resources. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 40(3), 323-346.

Hudson, L., & Ozanne, J. (1988). Alternative Ways of Seeking Knowledge in Consumer Research. Journal of Consumer Research, 14 (4), 508–521.

Hughes, A. L., & Palen, L. (2012). The evolving role of the public information officer: An examination of social media in emergency management. J. of Homeland Security and Emergency Management 9, 1, 1-20.

Ibekwe, N. (2015, May 29). Nigeria 2015 Transition: Jonathan's failures, achievements in five years. Retrieved from Premium Times: http://www.premiumtimesng.com/features-and-interviews/183866-nigeria2015-transition-jonathans-failures-achievements-in-five-years.html

Idike, A. N. (2014). Democracy and the Electoral Process in Nigeria: Problems and Prospects of the E-voting Option. Asian Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 2(2), 133-141.

Ifidon, S. E., & Ifidon, E. I. (2007). Basic Principles of Research Methods. Benin-City: Good news Express Communications.

Ijewereme, O. B. (2015). Anatomy of Corruption in the Nigerian Public Sector: Theoretical Perspectives and Some Empirical Explanations. SAGE Open, 5(2), 1–16. http://doi.org/10.1177/2158244015581188

Ikpeama, C. O. (2014, August 16). 2015 Election: A genuine threat to Nigeria's stability. Retrieved from Relief Web: http://reliefweb.int/report/nigeria/2015-election-genuine-threat-nigeria-s-stability

INEC. (2006). Building Confidence in the Electoral System.

International Crisis Group. (2014). 2014 Annual Report. Washington DC: Crisis Group.

International Peace Institute. (2012). Elections and Stability in West Africa: The Way Forward. New York.

IPI (International Peace Institute) (2012). Preventing conflicts in Africa: Early warning and response. In: Roundtable discussion on ‘Preventing Conflicts in Africa: The role of early warning and response systems on 27 April 2012. New York: IPI.

Jin, Y., Fisher Liu, B., & Austin, L.L. (2014). “Examining the role of social media in effective crisis management: The effects of crisis origin, information form, and source on publics’ crisis responses”, Communication Research, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 74-94.

Jones, B., Temperley, J., & Lima, A. (2009), “Corporate reputation in the era of Web 2.0: the case of Primark”, Journal of Marketing Management, Vol. 25, No. 9/10, pp. 927-939.

Joubish, M. a., Khurram, M. a., Ahmed, A., Fatima, S. T., & Haider, K. (2011). Paradigms and Characteristics of a Good Qualitative Research. World Applied Sciences Journal, 12(11), 2082–2087. http://doi.org/2082-2087

Jussila, J., Kärkkäinen, H., & Aramo-Immonen, H. (2014). “Social media utilization in business-to-business relationships of technology industry firms”, Computers in Human Behaviour, Vol. 30, pp. 606-613

Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M. 2010. “Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of social media”, Business Horizons, Vol. 53, No. 1, pp. 59-68.

Kaplan, M., and Miller, C. (1987). Group Decision Making and Normative Versus Informational Influence: Effects of Type of Issue and Assigned Decision Role. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, (53), 306-313.

Kietzmann, J. H., Silvestre, B. S., McCarthy, I. P., & Leyland F.P. (2012). “Unpacking the social media phenomenon: towards a research agenda”, Journal of Public Affairs, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 109-119.

Kim B. (2001). Social constructivism. Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology, 1-8

Kim, J.-H. & Bock, G.-W. (2011). A Study on The Factors Affecting The Behavior Of Spreading Online Rumors: Focusing On The Rumor Recipient's Emotions. In P. B. Seddon & S. Gregor (eds.), PACIS (p./pp. 98),: Queensland University of Technology. ISBN: 978-1-86435-644-1

Kimmel, A. J. (2004). Rumors and Rumor Control: A Manager’s Guide to Understanding and Combating Rumors. Psychology Press.

Krauss, S. E. (2005). Research paradigms and meaning making: A primer. The Qualitative Report, 10(4), 758-770. Retrieved May 22, 2015, from http://www.nova.edu/sss/QR/QR10-4/krauss.pdf

Kühne, W. (2010). The Role of Elections in Emerging Democracies and Post-Conflict Countries Key Issues, Lessons Learned and Dilemmas. Marius Muller-Hennig Global Peace and Security Policy, 10. Retrieved from http://www.fes.de/GPol/

Kwon, S., Cha, M., Jung, K., Chen, W., & Wang, Y. (2013). Prominent Features of Rumor Propagation in Online Social Media. In IEEE 13th International Conference on Data Mining, ICDM, 1103-1108.

Laroche, M., Habibi, M. R., & Richard, M. O. (2013). “To be or not to be in social media: How brand loyalty is affected by social media”, International Journal of Information Management, Vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 76-82.

Leberecht, T. (2010). Twitter grows up in aftermath of Haiti earthquake, CNET News, (January 19) http://www.cnet.com/news/twitter-grows-up-inaftermath-of-haiti-earthquake/

Leonard, H. B., Cole, C. M., Howitt, A. M., & Heymann, P. B. (2014). Why was Boston strong? Lessons from the Boston marathon bombing. Program on crisis leadership and program in criminal justice policy and management, Harvard Kennedy School, April 3.

Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (2002). Competing paradigms in qualitative research” in Denzin and Lincoln (eds.), Handbook of Qualitative Research, Sage, Thousand Oaks.

Liu, B. F., Austin, L., & Jin, Y. (2011). How publics respond to crisis communication strategies: The interplay of information form and source. Public Relations Review, 37(4), 345-353.

Long, T., & Johnson M. (2000). Rigour, reliability and Validity in qualitative research; Clinical Effectiveness in Nursing. 4, 30-37.

Lyam, A. A. (2006). Kwande Crisis: A community conflict of many interests. In T. T. Gyuse, & O. Ajene (Eds.), Conflicts in the Benue Valley. Makurdi: Benue State University Press.

MacLean, L M., Meyer M., & Estable A. (2004). Improving Accuracy of Transcripts in Qualitative Research. Qual Health Research; 14:113-23.

Madrigal, A. (2013). #BostonBombing: The Anatomy of a misinformation disaster. The Atlantic (April 19) http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/04/-bostonbombing-the-anatomy-of-amisinformation-disaster/275155/

Madrigal, A. (2013). Hey Reddit, enough Boston bombing vigilantism. The Atlantic. (April 17, 2013).

Matsumura, L.C., Slater, S.C., & Crosson, A. (2008). Classroom climate, rigorous instruction and curriculum, and students’ interactions in urban middle schools. The Elementary School Journal, 108(4), 294-312.

Maxwell, J. A. (2005). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (2nd ed.). CA: Thousand Oaks.

Maxwell, J. A. (2005). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (2nd ed.). CA: Thousand Oaks.

Mays, N., & Pope, C. (1995). Rigour and qualitative research. Qualitative Research: BMJ. Vol. 311. 109-112.

Mendoza, M., Poblete, B., & Castillo, C. (2010). Twitter under crisis: can we trust what we RT?. Proc. of 1st Workshop on Social Media Analytics, ACM, 71-79.

Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldana, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Montalvo, R.E. (2011), “Social Media Management”, International Journal of Management and Information Systems, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 91-96.

Morrow, S. L. (2005). Quality and trustworthiness in qualitative research in counselling psychology. Journal of Counselling Psychology, 50, 250-260.

Morrow, S. L. (2005). Quality and trustworthiness in qualitative research in counselling psychology. Journal of Counselling Psychology, 50, 250-260.

Munyua, A. W. (2011). Perceptions and Misconceptions: The role of New and Traditional Media in Kenya's Post-Election Violence. Kenya ICT Action Network (KICTANet). Kenya: Global Information Society Watch. Retrieved from https://www.giswatch.org/en/country-report/freedom-expression/kenya

Musa, A. I. (2013). Resistance to Polio Immunization Information in Kano, Nigeria. November. Emporia State University.

Nahon, K., Hemsley, J., Mason, R. M., Walker, S., and Eckert, J. (2013). Information flows in events of political unrest. Proc. of iConference 2013, 480-485.

Nairaland (2015, March 29). PDP warns Nigerians to disregard results on Social Media. Retrieved from Nairaland.com: http://www.nairaland.com/2225044/pdp-warns-nigerians-disregard-results/3

Neuman, L. (2003), Social research methods, Pearson Education Inc, USA

Neuman, L. W. (2000). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches (4th Ed.), USA: Allyn and Bacon.

Neuman, W. L. (2003). “Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches” (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Nigerian Eye (2015, March 3). Missing Chibok Girls, greatest embarrassment for Nigeria - Buhari. Retrieved from Nigerian Eye: http://www.nigerianeye.com/2015/03/missing-chibok-girls-greatest.html

Nigerian Nation (2015, April 4). 2015 Presidential Polls: Unprecedented. Retrieved from Nigerian Nation: http://www.nigeriannation.com/news-headlines/2015-presidential-polls-unprecedented.aspx

Nigerian Observer (2015, January 18). 2015 Elections: Why Nigerians are afraid. Retrieved from Nigerian Observer: http://www.nigerianobservernews.com/2015/01/2015-elections-nigerians-afraid/

Nnadozie, E. (2016, August 17). Trader arrested for naming pet dog 'Buhari'. Retrieved from Vanguard Nigeria: http://www.vanguardngr.com/2016/08/trader-arrested-naming-pet-dog-buhari/

Nwabughiogu, L. (2016, May 31). 2015 polls: Jonathan shocked me for conceding defeat - Buhari. Retrieved from Vanguard: http://www.vanguardngr.com/2016/05/2015-polls-jonathan-shocked-conceding-defeat-buhari-2/

Nwolise, O. B. C. (2007). Electoral violence and Nigeria’s 2007 elections, Journal of African Elections, 6(2).

Nystrand, M. (1996). Opening dialogue: Understanding the dynamics of language and learning in the English classroom. New York: Teachers College Press.

Obi, C. (2012). Conflict and peace in West Africa. Uppsala, Sweden: The Nordic Africa Institute. Available at http://www.nai.uu.se/publications/news/archives/051obi.

Odogwu, O. E. (2015, March 30). Election Result: Confusion by Social Media with fake statistics. Retrieved from Odogwu Media Communication Limited: http://www.odogwublog.com/2015/04/election-result-confusion-by-social.html

Oh, O., Agrawal, M., and Rao, H. (2013). Community intelligence and social media services: A rumor theoretic analysis of tweets during social crises. MIS Quarterly, 37, 2 (2013), 407-426.

Okafor, F. C. N. (2015, February 7). Implications of Electoral Violence for the 2015 General Elections in Nigeria. Retrieved from The Nigerian Voice: http://www.thenigerianvoice.com/news/169153/1/implications-of-electoral-viole.html

Olaniyi, M., Alkassim, B., Onochie, M., Alao, O., Edozie, V., & Saleh, A. (2015, February 15). Nigerians await 2015 polls amid threat of violence. Retrieved from Daily Trust: http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/sunday/index.php/politics/19607-nigerians-await-2015-polls-amid-threat-of-violence

Omoiya, S. Y. (2012). An Historical Appraisal of Nigerian Democratic Experience. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences, 2(9), 9–15. Retrieved from www.iiste.org

Oni, E. O. (2014). The Challenges of Democratic Consolidation in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic. International Journal of Politics and Good Governance, 5(5), 1–29. http://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2012.v3n11p685

Onwudiwe, I. D. (2004). African Criminology: Implications for Language and Strategies for Combating Terrorism. Fourth International Conference on Preserving African Languages (pp. 1-20). Maryland: University of Maryland.

Ottaway, M., and El-Sadany, M. (2012). Sudan: From Conflict to Conflict. Washington: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.

Otuchikere, C. (2015, February 26). 2015 General Elections: Nemesis of Boko Haram? Retrieved from Leadership: http://leadership.ng/news/414034/2015-general-elections-nemesis-of-boko-haram

Ovuorie, T. (2014, November 22). Violence may mar Nigeria's 2015 general elections - Report. Retrieved from Premium Times: http://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/171719-violence-may-mar-nigerias-2015-general-elections-report.html

Owete, F. (2015, March 31). Jonathan concedes defeat, congratulates Buhari. Retrieved from Premium Times: http://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/180392-jonathan-concedes-defeat-congratulates-buhari.html

Padgett, D. K. (2008). Qualitative methods in social work research (2nd ed.). Los Angeles: Sage.

Palen, L, Anderson, K.M, Mark, G, Martin, J, Sicker, D, Palmer, M., and Grunwald, D. A. (2010). Vision for technology-mediated support for public participation and assistance in mass emergencies and disasters, in Proc. of ACM-BCS Visions of Computer Science, 1-12.

Palermos, O. and Pritchard, D. (2013). “Extended knowledge and social epistemology.” Social Epistemology Review and Reply Collective, 2 (8): 105-120.

Palincsar, A.S. (1998). Social constructivist perspectives on teaching and learning. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 345–375.

Palinkas, L. A., Horwitz, S. M., Green, C. A., Wisdom, J. P., Duan, N., & Hoagwood, K. (2013). Purposeful Sampling for Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis in Mixed Method Implementation Research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-013-0528-y

Pang, A., Hassan, N. B. B. A and Chong, A. C. Y. (2014). “Negotiating crisis in the social media environment: Evolution of crises online, gaining credibility offline”, Corporate Communications: An International Journal, Vol. 19, No. 1, pp.96 – 118.

Panyarachun, A. (2008). Building the Pillars of Democracy. Center for International Private Enterprise, 1-8.

Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative research & evaluation methods: Integrating theory and practice (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Patton, M.Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 532 pp.

Payne, G. and Payne, J. (2004). Key concepts in social research. London: Sage publications.

Point Blank News (2015, January 10). Certificate Scandal: Buhari not qualified to contest presidential election says PDP. Retrieved from Point Blank News: http://pointblanknews.com/pbn/columns/femi-fani-kayode/certificate-scandal-buhari-qualified-contest-presidential-election-says-pdp/

Preez L. D., & Goedeke, S. (2013). Second order ethical decision-making in counselling psychology: Theory, practice, and process. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 42 (3), 44-49.

Premium Times (2015, January 18). Nigeria 2015: Buhari must come clean on his health status, PDP insists. Retrieved from Premium Times: http://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/175192-nigeria-2015-buhari-must-come-clean-health-status-pdp-insists.html

Premium Times (2015, March 2). Court refuses application to stop INEC from use of card readers. Retrieved from Premium Times: http://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/177812-court-refuses-application-to-stop-inec-from-use-of-card-readers.html

Price, V., Nir, L., and Cappella, J. N. (2006). Normative and Informational Influences in Online Political Discussions. Communication Theory, 16 (1), 47-74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2006.00005.x

Pulse (2015, March 28). Card Reader Malfunction reported in several polling units. Retrieved from Pulse.ng: http://pulse.ng/politics/nigeria-elections-2015-card-reader-malfunction-reported-in-several-polling-units-id3609853.html

Qazvinian, V., Rosengren, E., Radev, D. R., and Mei, Q. (2011). Rumor has it: Identifying misinformation in microblogs. In Proc. of the Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, 1589-1599.

Ratkiewicz, J., Conover, M., Meiss, M., Goncalves, B., Flammini, A. and Menczer, F. (2011). “Detecting and Tracking Political Abuse in Social Media,” in ICSWM: 5th International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media.

Reeves, R., & Hahn, T. (2010). Job advertisements for recent graduates: Advising, curriculum, and job-seeking implications. Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, 51(2), 103-119.

Reeves, T., & Hedberg, J. G. (2003). Interactive Learning Systems Evaluation. New Jersey, Educational Technology Publishers.

Remenyi, D., Studies, D., & Dublin, T. C. (2002). Research Strategies – Beyond the Differences. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 1(1), 38–41. Retrieved from http://www.ejbrm.com

Remenyi, D., Williams, B., Money, A., and Swartz, E. (1998). Doing research in business and management. London: Sage.

Reznitskaya, A., Anderson, R.C., and Kuo, L.J. (2007). Teaching and Learning Argumentation. Elementary School Journal, 107: 449–472.

Riegler, A. (2012). Paradigms in Theory Construction, 235–255. http://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0914-4

Ritchie, J., & Lewis, J. (2003). Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science students and researchers. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Rolfe, G. (2006). Validity, trustworthiness and rigor: Quality and the ideal qualitative research. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 53, 304-310.

Schultz, D. E., and Peltier, J. J. (2013), “Social media's slippery slope: challenges, opportunities and future research directions”, Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 86-99.

Schwandt, T. A. (1994). Constructivist, interpretative approaches to human inquiry in the production of reality: Essays and readings on social interaction (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA. Sage Publications.

Schwandt, T. A. (2003). Three epistemological stances for qualitative inquiry: Interpretativism, hermeneutics and social constructionism. In Denzin, N. and Lincoln, Y (Eds.), The Landscape of Qualitative Research: Theories and issues. (pp. 292-331). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Scott, J. (1990). A matter of record, documentary sources in social research. Cambridge: Polity press.

Scott, J. P. (Ed.). (2006). Documentary research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Seale C, Silverman D. (1997). Ensuring rigor in qualitative research. Eur J Public Health; 7(4):379-84.

Shibutani, T. (1966). Improvised news: A sociological study of rumor. Ardent Media.

Shively, W. P. (2006). Case selection: Insights from Rethinking Social Inquiry. Political Analysis. 14(3): 344-347. 10.1093/pan/mpj007.

Shklovski, I., Palen, L., & Sutton, J. (2008). Finding Community Through Information and Communication Technology in Disaster Events. Proceedings of the ACM 2008 Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSW 2008) (pp. 127-136). San Diego: ACM.

Sia, C. L., Tan, B. C. Y., and Wei, K. K. (2002). Group Polarization and Computer-Mediated Communication: Effects of Communication Cues, Social Presence, and Anonymity. Information Systems Research, 13(1), 70-90.

Siah, J., Bansal, M. and Pang, A. (2010), “New media: a new medium in escalating crises?”, Corporate Communications: An International Journal, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 143-155.

Siah, J., Bansal, M. and Pang, A. (2010), “New media: a new medium in escalating crises?”, Corporate Communications: An International Journal, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 143-155.

Simpson, K., & Freeman, R. (2004). Critical health promotion and education: A new research challenge. Health Education Research, 19, 340-348.

Smith C. (2010). What is a person?: Rethinking humanity, social life, and the moral good from the person up. University of Chicago Press.

Sotubo, J. (2015, March 28). Boko Haram terrorists kill2 at Gombe polling units. Retrieved from Pulse.ng: http://pulse.ng/politics/nigeria-elections-2015-boko-haram-terrorists-kill-2-at-gombe-polling-units-id3610118.html

Spiro, E. S., Fitzhugh, S., Sutton, J., Pierski, N., Greczek, M., and Butts, C. T. (2012). Rumoring during extreme events: A case study of Deepwater Horizon 2010. Proc. of ACM Web Science Conference 2012, ACM, 275-283

Spradley, J. P. (1979). The ethnographic interview. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Starbird, K. and Palen, L. (2012). How will the Revolution be Retweeted? Information Propagation in the 2011 Egyptian Uprising. In Proc. of CSCW, 6-17.

Starbird, K. and Palen, L. (2012). How will the Revolution be Retweeted? Information Propagation in the 2011 Egyptian Uprising. In Proc. of CSCW, 6-17.

Starbird, K., Maddock, J., Orand, M., Achterman, P., and Mason, R.M. (2014). Rumors, False Flags, and Digital Vigilantes: Misinformation on Twitter after the 2013 Boston Marathon Bombing. iConference, 654-662.

Stephens, K. K., Malone, P. C. and Bailey, C. M. (2005). Communicating with stakeholders during a crisis: evaluating message strategies. Journal of Business Communication, Vol. 42 No. 4, pp. 390-419.

Sun, S., Liu, H., He, J., and Du, X. (2013). “Detecting event rumors on sina weibo automatically,” in Web Technologies and Applications. Springer, pp. 120–131.

Sweetser, K. D., and Lariscy, R. W. (2008). “Candidates Make Good Friends: An Analysis of Candidates’ Uses of Facebook”, International Journal of Strategic Communication, 2(3): 175-198.

Takahashi, T. and Igata, N. (2012). “Rumor detection on twitter,” in Soft Computing and Intelligent Systems (SCIS) and 13th International Symposium on Advanced Intelligent Systems (ISIS), 2012 Joint 6th International Conference on. IEEE, pp. 452–457.

Taslitz, A. E. (2009). Why Did Tinkerbell get off so easily?: The roles of imagination and social norms in excusing human weakness. Texas Tech Law Review, 42, 419. Retrieved from https://ssrn.com/abstracts=1730864

Taylor, B., Kermode, S. & Roberts, K. (2006). Research in Nursing and Healthcare: Evidence for Practice (3rd ed.). Melbourne: Thomson.

Teddlie, C., & Yu, F. (2007). Mixed methods sampling. Journal of Mixed Methods Research. http://doi.org/10.1177/2345678906292430

Teddlie, C., & Yu, F. (2007). Mixed methods sampling: A typology with examples. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(1) 77-100. Doi:10.1177/2345678906292830

The Student Room. (2017, January 19). The Student Room. Retrieved from The Student Room: https://www.thestudentroom.co.uk

Thomas, D. (2003). A general inductive approach for analyzing qualitative evaluation data. American Journal of Evaluation, 27(2), 237-246.

Thomas, J. B., Peters, C. O., Howell, E. G. and Robbins, K. (2012). Social media and negative word of mouth: Strategies for handing unexpecting comments. Atlantic Marketing Journal: Vol. 1, No. 2, Article 7.

Tronvoll, B., Brown, S.W., Gremler, D. D., Edvardsson, B. (2011). "Paradigms in service research", Journal of Service Management, 22 (5), pp.560-585, https://doi.org/10.1108/09564231111174951

Tveit, A.D. & Sunde, A.L. (2016). Interchange, 47(2), 121-132. DOI: 10.1007/s10780-015-9267-1

Umoru, H. (2015, January 17). Presidential Election: Buhari is not qualified to contest - Ozekhome. Retrieved from Vanguard: http://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/01/presidential-election-buhari-not-qualified-contest-ozekhome/

Umoru, H. (2015, January 26). Jonathan's achievements verifiable - PDP. Retrieved from Vanguard: http://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/01/jonathans-achievements-verifiable-pdp/

UNDP. (2006). Elections and Conflict Prevention: A Guide to Analysis, Planning and Programming. Democratic Governance Group Bureau for Development Policy.

US Department of Health and Human Services (1980). Pretesting in health communications: methods, examples, and resource for improving health messages and materials. Bethesda, MD., U.S.A: National Cancer Institute.

Vanguard (2014). “2015: We’ll regard anyone that votes for PDP as enemy of the North – NEF”, Vanguard, 15 October.

Vanguard (2015, January 11). Buhari not qualified to contest presidential election. Retrieved from Vanguard: http://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/01/buhari-not-qualified-to-contest-presidential-election-says-pdp/

Vanguard (2015, March 10). PDP govs kick as INEC insists on card readers. Retrieved from Vanguard: http://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/03/pdp-govs-kick-as-inec-insists-on-card-readers/

Vanguard (2015, March 29). After Initial Card Reader Failure: Nigerians persevere, vote in peaceful elections. Retrieved from Vanguard: http://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/03/after-initial-card-reader-failure-nigerians-persevere-vote-in-peaceful-elections/

Varvar, T. A. (2000). Conflict Negotiation and Resolution: The way out of Communal Clashes in Tiv Land. In A. Bur (Ed.), Communal Relations: Conflict and Crises Management Strategies. Makurdi: Aboki Publishers.

Vecchio, P., Laubacher, R., Ndou, V. and Passiante, G. (2011). Managing corporate reputation in the Blogosphere: The case of Dell computers. Corporate Reputation Review, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 133-144.

Vuori, M. (2012). “Exploring uses of social media in a global corporation”. Journal of Systems and Information Technology, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 155-170.

Walsham, G. (1993). Interpreting Information Systems in Organizations, Wiley, Chichester. (http://www.misq.org/discovery/MISQD_isworld)

Wass, T.R (2013). Developing Critical Thinkers in Higher Education: A Vygotskian Perspective. University of Otago Dunedin (un-published thesis), New Zealand.

Weaver, K., & Olson, J. K. (2006). Understanding paradigms used for nursing research. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 53(4), 459-469.

Weber, K., C. Maher, A. Powell, and H. Lee (2008). Learning opportunities from group discussions: Warrants become the objects of debate. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 68, 247-261.

Weiner, B. (1986). An attributional theory of motivation and emotion, Springer Verlag, New York.

Welman, J. C., & Kruger, S. J. (1999). Research Methodology for the Business and Administrative Sciences. Johannesburg, South Africa: International Thompson.

Willis, E.J (2011). Toward learner Autonomy: an assessment for learning Approach [unpublished thesis]. Queensland: Queensland University of Technology.

Yang, D. J., Chiu, J. Z., & Chen, Y. K. (2011). Examining the social influence on college students for playing online game: Gender differences and implications. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 10(3), 115–122.

Yauch, C. A. and Steudel, H. J. (2003). Complementary Use of Qualitative and Quantitative Cultural Assessment Methods, Organizational Research Methods, Vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 465-481.

Yecho, J. I. (2006). An overview of the Tiv-Jukun crisis. In T. T. Gyuse, & O. Ajene, Conflicts in the Benue Valley. Makurdi: Benue State University Press.

Yin, R. K. (2014). Case study research: Design and methods (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Zikmund, W.G. (2003). Business Research Methods. 7th Edition, Thomson South Western, Ohio


Downloads

Downloads per month over past year

Actions (login required)

View Item View Item